Physicist Ioffe Abram Fedorovich: biography. Heinrich Joffe - revolution and the Romanov family

Rose

It is perhaps difficult to come up with a worse name for the village, near which our evacuation hospital near Moscow has settled down: Mochishche. But more beautiful than this place, too, is probably not easy to find. The steep coast of the swift, wide Ob, the islands on it, immersed in greenery in summer. Birds sing in different voices ... Everything is in bright colors, in the local frying, locusts, all around - forests ...

What kind of population lived in the village - I do not know for sure. Maybe exiles from afar, or maybe, as they said then, dispossessed locals. Poverty, poverty - terrible. They lived in houses that are more correctly called dugouts. Windows at ground level, rickety roofs covered with pieces of rusty iron, rotting boards.

They ate potatoes from their own gardens. She saved: a lot of her was born in the Siberian land, large, tasty.

Go to the school from the hospital to the village for four kilometers. In autumn, and especially on snowy or frosty winter days, it is not easy even for us, boys and girls. There were only three classes - 5th, 6th and 7th. Overage students aged 14-15 also studied in the 5th.

From the very first days of school, I was in hell. It started after the class teacher read out a list of the names and surnames of our seventh graders and named mine: Rosenblum Lilya. In the class, without hiding, they giggled, and some even cackled. My neighbor on the desk was Verka Zherebtsova (the last name "Zherebtsov" or "Zherebtsova" was probably worn by half the village) - a snub-nosed girl with two mouse pigtails on her shoulders. The next day, before class began, she addressed me loudly in a Jewish accent:

Sarochka, did your mother give you a chicken to take with you? Are you going to eat it now or later?

Friendly laughter met her words. Laughter and obscenities, which were common in the class. Everyone cursed: both boys and girls.

This went on almost every day. They called me Sarochka, they asked me with a rolling “r” about the chicken, they talked about the Jews fighting on the “Tashkent front”, but the set of offensive and insulting remarks was generally small. How could Mochischi know much of what was attributed to the Jews?

At home, I cried and one day, unable to stand it, I told my mother everything. The next morning, taking me with her, she went to the hospital commissioner, lieutenant colonel. His name was Nikolai Ivanovich Golosov. About 50 years old, he was short, lean, with a gloomy face. He wore an already worn uniform, girded with a belt with a harness. The army cap on him was also old, with crumpled sides, like Furmanov's in the film Chapaev. He walked with a slight limp, leaning on a stick.

It's nothing, - said the commissioner, after listening to his mother. - We'll figure it out.

He smoked a cigarette, inhaling deeply and holding it with his thumb and forefinger inside his half-bent palm.

We'll figure it out," he repeated.

The commissioner came to the classroom before the bell for lesson one. He took off his cap, put the stick at the first desk, sat down at the table, putting his hands on it, clenched into fists. His face was more gloomy than usual.

I am a military man,” he said, “I say everything directly and at once. No preface. Reported to me that you are engaged in zhivoedstvo here. Look, the little girl Lily Rosenblum, consider, was hunted down. Do not like Jews - yes or no?

The class is silent. I saw how a bee flew into the open window, crawled along the window glass and, trying to fly away, hit it. I closely watched the unfortunate bee, seeing nothing else and not thinking about anything ...

Who will answer me? the commissioner asked. - Are you afraid?

Somewhere behind me, the flip top of a desk slammed shut. Vaska Zherebtsov, an overgrown man, I think, a repeater, stretched out his long legs from under the seat. He got up sluggishly, somehow indifferently.

Why be afraid? There is nothing to love Jews for. They geared men here ... My father told me.

Father? the commissar interrupted sharply. - Where is the father?

Like where ... Where is everyone. At the front, fighting.

Has your mother received letters for a long time?

Not. Came after Easter. From the hospital. Was wounded...

The commissar rose, pushing back his chair.

And this girl, - he spoke, nodding in my direction, - has a father from the first day of the war at the front - and not a single line. Dead, alive? If he was alive, maybe it was he, a military doctor of the 2nd rank, who took your dad away from death? Or maybe he saved his arm or leg? Your dad would come back crippled, then how? Walk on the wagons, ask for alms? Now take this girl's mother. Also a military doctor, in any weather, in a cold, snowstorm, in the fall in the mud knee-deep in a hurry to the wounded and sick. Still a young woman, beautiful, and all the time - in a padded jacket, in felt boots or in rubber boots. He carries out his military duty flawlessly, no matter what ... Parents, then, your fathers are being saved, and you are poisoning their daughter?

The silence didn't go away. Vaska, who had grown up, was still standing at the desk. I kept a close eye on the bee. She finally crawled to the window and flew away.

What are you standing for? the commissar said to Vaska. - Sit down. And now I want to tell you: the fathers from the front line will come, they will see how you live here cold and hungry, they will say - no, you are doing something wrong. You can't live like that. We must build a new life. And who is to build? You, no one else...

He coughed with the dry cough of an old smoker and, already putting on his cap, said hoarsely:

And here I am, an old officer, a former front-line soldier, went through three wars, I order you and ask ...

Something must have prevented him from continuing. He took a stick and, leaning on it, left the classroom.

Vanka Leontiev was not at school when the commissar came. Appearing the next day and seeing me, he cheerfully shouted:

Sarochka! Your dad, they say, returned from the Tashkent front. Did you bring a lot of apricots? I would treat!

No one picked up his cheerful cry. Everyone went about their business as if they didn't hear anything. I got up from the last desk and went to Vanka Lenka Nesterov, a short, stocky lad who for some reason always wore a Red Army helmet. It was strange, but no one, not even the teachers, reprimanded him. So, in a helmet, he sat in the lessons. Now, walking clubfoot, he went up to Vanka, straightened his helmet on his head and, without swinging, hit him in the face. The blow fell on the bridge of the nose, Vanka fell, smearing blood on his face. Nesterov turned around and, without looking back, just as clumsily went to his place.

Time has passed. The war was moving towards victory. We returned to Moscow. I went to the commissioner to say goodbye.

Well, goodbye, daughter, - he said, putting his hand on my head. - I know that it was difficult, but what can you do. And don't get mad at the guys, they're not evil. You can see for yourself: they live badly, nowhere worse. After the war, life will change, then, maybe, conversations and deeds will go differently. I don’t know… There’s still a lot to take. Well, happy for you.

At home, in the mailbox, I found a postcard with the beauties of Lake Baikal. I flipped it over to the other side. It was written on it: “In the long memory of Lila Rosenblum. Stallions Vasily, Nesterov Leonid. The village of Mochishchi, Novosibirsk Region, 1944. And below the postscript: "Put aside."

I fulfill the wishes of Vasily Zherebtsov and Leonid Nesterov. I keep their postcard.

Series "Pages of the history of our Motherland"

G.Z.Ioffe

Series "Pages of the history of our Motherland"

The series was founded in 1977

G. 3. Ioffe

"WHITE DEAL"

General Kornilov

Executive Editor Doctor of Historical Sciences V. P. NAUMOV

MOSCOW SCIENCE 1989

Reviewer

BBK 63.3(2)7 I75

Doctor of Historical Sciences G. I. ZLOKAZOV

Ioffe G. 3.

I75 "White business". General Kornilov / Responsible. ed. V. P. Naumov.- M.: Nauka, 1989.- 291 p., ill.- (Series

"Pages of the history of our Motherland").

18YOU 5-02-008533-2.

The book, on a strictly documentary basis, recreates the political history of the "White movement", the history of the struggle between the "Whites" and the "Reds", which ended in the complete victory of the Red, workers' and peasants' Russia. The author reveals the anti-people essence of the “white cause”, his desire to restore the bourgeois-landlord order in the country.

For a wide range of readers.

and 0503020400-186 042(02)-89

18-88 NP

BBC 03.3(2)7

Popular science edition of Ioffe Heinrich Zinovievich "WHITE DEAL".

General Kornilov

Approved for printing

Editorial board of popular scientific publications of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR Editor of the publishing house M. A. Vasiliev. Artist V. Yu. Kuchenkov, Art editor I. D. Bogachev. Technical editors M. and. Dzhioeva, A, S. Barkhina. Proofreaders V. A. Aleshkina,

L. I. Voronina

IB No. 38259

Handed over to the set 10.02.89. Signed for publication on May 26, 1989. A-09889.

Format 84 X 108 "/z 2 - Printing paper No. 1. The typeface is ordinary. Letterpress, Uel. oven l. 15.33. Uch.-ed. l. 17.0, Ul. cr. ott. 15.65. Circulation 50,000 copies. Type. zak. 2590. Price 1 rub. 50 k.

Publishing house "Nauka" 117864, GSP-7, Moscow. B-485, Profsoyuznaya st., 60

2nd printing house of the Nauka publishing house

121099, Moscow, G-99, Shubinsky lane, 10

18V1Ch 5-02-008533-2 © Nauka Publishing House, 1989

The cover reproduces a photograph of the meeting of L. G. Kornilov, who arrived at the State Conference (Moscow, August 1917),

Introduction

What is a "white case"?

In the pre-war years, all the boys played in the "red" and "white". It was not difficult for anyone to answer the question of who the "whites" were. The "whites" were bourgeois and landlords who sought to return the people to their former, oppressed state. Numerous colorful posters, in fact, confirmed this. On them, people with plump bellies, in caps and bowlers - merchants and capitalists - kept raging dogs on leashes, on which it was written: Denikin, Wrangel, Yudenich, Kolchak ...

When the Moscow Art Theater staged Bulgakov's The Days of the Turbins in 1926, it caused something like a shock. The counter-revolutionary officers looked like ordinary, honest, even somewhat pleasant people!

Rapp's criticism sharply attacked the play, accusing the author of "conciliation" towards the class enemy - the Whites, worse, of sympathy for the "whites", of trying to rehabilitate them, etc.

But it was, of course, not a matter of the malicious narrow-mindedness of the Rappovites. V. Mayakovsky, who, by the way, also took part in Bulgakov’s criticism, seems to have accurately captured the peculiarity of his contemporary perception of the White Guard counter-revolution:

Historians with hydra will pull out posters - “

Chi was this hydra, chi not?

And we knew this hydra In her natural size!

And the same Mayakovsky in the poem "Good!" suddenly we meet such a picture of the flight of the class-hated

And over the white ashes

like falling from a bullet,

for both

knee

commander-in-chief fell.

Kissing the earth three times, three times

city

baptized.

Under the bullets

jumped into the boat...

- Your

excellency,

row? -

- Rowing!

These two poetic passages deeply reflect two truths: the truth of our attitude towards the "whites", the truth of our fierce struggle against them that has not yet cooled down, and the truth of the "whites" themselves, who loved that Russia that was irrevocably gone under the blows of the revolution, and with their mind and heart taking this care...

The “white cause”, or “white movement”, is an integral part of our history, but how much do we know about it even now? In the 1920s, memoirs of some White Guard "leaders" and political leaders associated with them were still published, and books devoted to the counter-revolution appeared. In the 1930s, all this practically ceased.

It seems that today's schoolchildren (and not only them) will answer the question about "whites" even less intelligibly than those boys who once selflessly played "whites" and "reds" answered. Although the nature of the answers will still be different. Under the influence of our cinematic "westerns" about the civil war, the "whites" will most likely appear in the guise of polished guards officers whining in restaurants "God Save the Tsar" and old Russian romances. Few people will say what many "brilliant officers" did in the territories "liberated" from the "reds". According to V. Shulgin - one of the ideologists of the "white cause", - sometimes "falcons soared not as eagles, but as thieves." The White Terror remained in the memory of the people for a long time ... Is it the fault of those responsible in this "ignorance"? After all, historical literature did not and does not give them the necessary “material”,

However, in fairness it should be said that the answer to such a question does not belong to simple ones. Even in the White émigré historiography, for which the history of the counter-revolution was naturally at the center of attention, the question of the content of the concept of the “White movement” caused heated debate.

What is the “white movement”, “white cause”?

Where are its origins?

What forces were its support?

What did they oppose to Soviet power and what did they prepare for Russia in the event of their victory?

Why did they fail?

As one of the readers correctly said, "the element of historical knowledge is a dispute." The dispute may never end.

Revolution and civil war are a huge layer of our history, a whole epoch that appears before us with a thousand sides and facets, filled with the drama of struggle, defeats and victories. It is wrong to think that this is just yesterday's world, sunk into oblivion. No, he lives, speaks, screams, demands attention, insists on understanding, on justice. Every historian who has turned to the documents of that era knows this well, feels it.

How to tell about it?

Any historical description bears the imprint of the emotions and originality of the historian's thoughts. In a number of other reasons, time changes it most of all. In descriptions close to the events, there is more emotional, in any case, it is felt more strongly. In descriptions from which events have already been removed into the depths of history, thought will prevail.

This does not mean that in this case the work of the historian becomes dispassionate. Just the distance of time allows you to approach the subject of knowledge with a deeper understanding.

And again, art, poetry are here ahead of historical science, showing her the way. We started with the poems of V. Mayakovsky, written in the mid-20s, and I would like to finish with the poems of R. Rozhdestvensky. Already today he visited the Parisian cemetery of Saint-

Cheniève-de-Bois, where many members of the "white movement" are buried:

I touch history with my palm.

Russian physicist Abram Ioffe left an unforgettable mark. During his life he wrote several books and a large encyclopedia published in 30 volumes. In addition, he opened a school from which great scientists graduated. Abram Fedorovich at one time became the "father of Soviet physics."

Brief biography of Abram Fedorovich Iofe

The famous scientist was born in 1880 on October 29 in the city of Romny, which was at that time in the Poltava province. His family was friendly and cheerful. When the boy was 9 years old, he entered a real school, which was located in Germany, where a significant role was assigned to mathematical subjects. It was here that the physicist received his secondary education and a certificate in 1897. Here he met his best friend Stepan Timoshenko.

After graduating from college in the same year, he entered the Technological St. Petersburg University.

He graduated from it in 1902 and immediately applied to a higher educational institution, which was located in Germany, in Munich. Here he began to work, his leader was the German physicist V.K. Roentgen. He taught his ward a lot, and thanks to him, the young scientist Abram Ioffe received the first degree of Doctor of Science.

In 1906, the guy got a job at the Polytechnic Institute, where 12 years later, that is, in 1918, he organized the first physical and mechanical faculty to graduate professional physicists.

Abram Ioffe determined the elementary electric charge back in 1911, but he did not use his own idea, but the American physicist Millikan. However, he published his work only in 1913, as he wanted to check some of the nuances. And so it happened that the American physicist was able to publish the result earlier, and that is why the name of Millikan is mentioned in the experiment, and not Ioffe.

Ioffe's first serious work was his master's thesis, which he defended in 1913. Two years later, in 1915, he wrote and defended his doctoral thesis.

In 1918, he worked as president at the Russian Scientific Center for Radiology and Surgical Technologies, and also headed the Physics and Technology Department at this university. Three years later (in 1921) he became the head of the Institute of Physics and Technology, which today is called A. F. Ioffe.

The physicist spent 6 years as chairman of the All-Russian Association of Physicists, starting in 1924. After that, he was the head of the Agrophysical University.

In 1934, Abram and other initiators created a creative club of scientific intelligentsia, and at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War he was appointed head of a meeting of a commission related to military equipment.

In 1942 he was the head of the military engineering commission at the Leningrad City Committee of the CPSU.

At the end of 1950, Abram Fedorovich was removed from the post of head, but at the beginning of 1952 he created a semiconductor laboratory on the basis of the Department of Physics of the Novosibirsk State University, and two years later (1954) organized a semiconductor institute, which turned out to be a profitable business.

Abram Iofe devoted almost 60 years to physics. During this time, a lot of literature has been written, an incredible amount of research has been carried out, and several departments and schools have been opened that are dedicated to the famous great scientist. A.F. Ioffe died at his workplace in his office on October 14, 1960. He did not quite live up to the round date - 80 years. He was buried in St. Petersburg at the site of the Volkovsky cemetery "Literary Mostki".

You see in the photo of Abram Ioffe, who earned the respect of the people thanks to his mind. After all, so many years have passed since the day of his death, and even today you can hear about him in many universities of the country.

Personal life

Abram Fedeorovich was married twice. For the first time he had a beloved woman in 1910 - this is Kravtsova Vera Andreevna. She was the first wife of a physicist. They almost immediately had a daughter, Valentina, who eventually followed in her father's footsteps and became a famous doctor of physical and mathematical sciences, headed a laboratory at a university of silicate chemistry. She married a people's artist, opera singer S. I. Migai.

Unfortunately, Abram did not stay married to Vera for a long time, and in 1928 he married a second time to Anna Vasilievna Echeistova. She was also a physicist and perfectly understood her husband, his work, attitude towards family and friends. That is why the couple lived a long, happy life.

Creative activity

Even in his youth, Ioffe identified for himself the main areas in science. This is the physics of the nucleus, polymers and semiconductors. His work became famous in a short time. Ioffe devoted them to the direction of semiconductors.

This area was excellently developed not only by the physicist himself, but also by his students. Much later, Ioffe created a school of physics, which became famous throughout the country.

Organizational activities

The name of the scientist is often found in foreign literature, where his achievements and the history of promotion are described. The books also talk about the organizational activities of the physicist, which was quite diverse and multifaceted. Therefore, it is difficult to fully characterize it from all sides.

Iofe participated in the collegium of the NTO VSNKh, was a member of the council of scientists, created the Agrophysical University, the Institute of Semiconductors, the University of Macromolecular Compounds. In addition, the organizational activity of the scientist was visible in the Academy of Sciences, the preparation of congresses and various conferences.

Awards, titles and prizes

Physicist Ioffe Abram Fedorovich in 1933 received the honorary title - Honored Scientist of the RSFSR, and in 1955 on his birthday he was awarded the title - Hero of Socialist Labor. Received 3 orders of Lenin (in 1940, 1945, 1955).

Physics was posthumously awarded the Lenin Prize in 1961. For outstanding achievements in the field of science, A. Ioffe received the Stalin Prize of the first degree in 1942.

In memory of A.F. Ioffe, a large impact crater in the southern hemisphere was given the name of a scientist. Also, one large research university in Russia was named after him back in 1960, a monument to the scientist was erected in the courtyard of the institute opposite the building, and a small bust was installed in the assembly hall of the same institution. Not far from the university, where the second building is, there is a memorial plaque, which indicates in what years the outstanding scientist worked here.

In memory of Ioff, a street in Berlin was named. Not far from the research university there is the famous Academician Ioffe Square. It is not difficult to guess in whose honor it is named.

In the city of Romny there is school number 2, which was once a real school. Now it is named after the great scientist.

In addition, not only in Russia, but also in the world, there are many pictorial, graphic and sculptural portraits of the physicist, which were depicted by artists at all times.

And until now, many citizens know about this man, who made physics much more interesting and brighter.

Bibliography

We reviewed the biography of Abram Ioffe briefly. At the same time, I would like to mention the literature that the scientist wrote. First of all, it is worth noting the great Soviet encyclopedia. It began to be issued in 1926. After the death of the physicist, it continued to be printed and the last volume was published in 1990.

Much later after the first volume, in 1957, the book "Physics of Semiconductors" appeared, which describes not only the theory, but also the introduction of semiconductors into the national economy.

In addition, Ioffe has a wonderful book "On Physics and Physicists", which describes all the scientific work of the scientist. Most of the book is designed for readers who are interested in the history of creation and research.

The book "Meeting with Physicists" tells how the scientist met with many Soviet and foreign physicists, they conducted research together, opened institutes and departments.

In addition, there are books that were dedicated to the great scientist Abram Fedorovich Ioffe. One of them is "Successes in the physical sciences." This book was dedicated to the day of the 80th anniversary. And in 1950 they released a collection, which was dedicated to the day of the 70th anniversary.

It is impossible to list all the literature, as it has accumulated too much. After all, the scientist worked on projects and science for about 60 years.

Conclusion

The biography of Abram Fedorovich Ioffe is amazing. After all, not every person will be able to work on science all his life, conduct some kind of research, open schools, educate people and come up with new physical methods. It was he who showed the people how to give themselves to work, their country and science.

Unfortunately, the scientist was never able to celebrate his eightieth birthday, but he managed to do a lot. And today students and their teachers use the methods of the famous physicist Abram Fedorovich Ioffe.

Encyclopedic YouTube

1 / 1

HELL. Grigoriev about microwave radiation

Subtitles

Good afternoon everyone. Today, the theme of physics and the theme of science continues in our studio, and our studio has a new guest, this is Andrey Dmitrievich Grigoriev. Good afternoon, Andrei Dmitrievich. Hello. And we will ask you to immediately introduce yourself and tell us a little about yourself. You are a professor at LETI University, you give lectures there, in fact, I studied with you for a certain period of time. Tell us a little more about yourself. Well, I'm quite an old man, I was born before the war, there are probably not very many such people left. So, he was born in 1937 in Leningrad, then our city was called Leningrad, here. At the age of 4, we were caught by the war, I won’t talk about the war, this is a separate story, how the war was perceived by a child. Maybe it's interesting, but it's a completely different topic. Therefore, after the war, we were evacuated, returned to Leningrad, I went to school, graduated from it, and while still at school I became interested in radio engineering. I began to collect radio receivers, first a detector receiver, then I collected several tube receivers. Is this still in school? It was still at school. Those. Did you already understand the principles of work at school? Without principles of operation, it is difficult to assemble a working receiver. And they were working for you, apparently, right? Yes. In addition, at school we organized a radio center, we also assembled a powerful amplifier ourselves, hung the speakers there on the floors, and, therefore, broadcast music, something else during breaks, during all sorts of school events, in the evening. This is someone you, it turns out, from senior teachers, teachers supported this and helped to do all this, right? You know, we basically did it on our own, although there was support, because we were given a room there, at the school, a small one, but still, in which we sat, winding the lessons. Instead, they sat in the radio center. Those. before, children skipped classes, which means that when creating radios, this is an interesting fact. And now children smoke at school, earlier absenteeism was like that. It's clear. And it turns out that I'm most interested in what, it turns out, where could you read about it? Those. in an ordinary physics textbook, the principles of work were described, and did you take it further and do it yourself? No. Well, of course, there was special literature on radio receivers, on radio transmitters, which could be read. Popular literature was, here, they studied from it. There was no television then and the Internet, here, there was no Google and Yandex either, so only from books. But, nevertheless, here it is. Well, of course, we were not only engaged in radio, we also drank there in this radio center. We kind of keep silent about this. And then it turns out that…? Because our school was for men. Then there were separate schools - women's and men's, here we had a men's school, the team was like that. With all the attributes, of course. And then, it turns out, at school ... And now, since I was already involved in this business at school, after school I decided to enter LETI, since it was such a university in which there was radio engineering and that's it. After school, I received a silver medal, and went to enter the Faculty of Radio Engineering. Yes, and the medal was given to me somehow with a delay, and the certificate, and the medal with a week delay, I don’t know for what reasons. And when I came to apply, they told me - and that's it, we have finished accepting medalists, go there to another faculty. Well, to another faculty - okay, I went to FET, then it was called the Faculty of Electronic Engineering. Now FEL is the Faculty of Electronics, then it was FET. I came to the selection committee there, they also tell me - you know, there are no places, we already have a lot of silver medals here. Those. then the children were such medalists, in short, did they all finish with a medal? Well, not all, here in our class, for example, it’s true, there wasn’t a single gold medal, but 5 were silver, here. Well, I then said - well, then I will take exams, that's it. Give up - give up. I came home, at home, of course, they tell me - what do you think, why are you, go better ... And my father worked at the Mining Institute, taught. And, then, go to the Mining Institute. But you didn't want to, did you? Well, they broke me, I said - well. Broke, I'll go take the documents. So, I came to LETI, I say - so I need to pick up the documents. They looked at me there - and you, he says, were accepted. That is, apparently, this is my statement that I will take exams, it apparently worked, they decided that such a motivated guy, and that they should take him. Well, that's how I ended up at LETI. And there, as a matter of fact, did you already begin to study as an ordinary student, or did you already start some kind of scientific work right away? No, well, you know, at first, of course, as an ordinary student, but starting from the 4th year I already worked at the department, and at the department, not only at the department, even at the Institute of the Brain, there I assembled amplifiers for recording brain activity, so highly sensitive . I just worked as an installer, you can say, here. And at the Institute I had a leader, such Volkov, Evgeny Grigorievich, and he got me interested in his subject of this very high-frequency topic, I had a diploma on this topic, I even came up with something there. Well, since then, with short breaks, I have been dealing with this problem in one form or another. Those. here is the problem microwave, microwave range, microwave ... Microwave range. Basically, the problems associated with the generation and amplification of these oscillations, this range. This range plays a very important role in modern science and technology, because its main application, of course, is radar. Radars are now installed on any civil and military ship, aircraft, several pieces, even several dozen pieces, here, they are on ground facilities. And they, of course, play a very important role for the country's defense capability - they warn about the appearance of any unwanted objects. And in civilian life too. Now a new breakthrough in this area is autonomous vehicles, cars that have to drive without a driver. This is a matter for the next 10 years, probably, when they already appear and will be, we will get used to them. And these cars and other vehicles are autonomous, they can't operate without radar. So this remains a very important field of science and technology. But along with that, it's a connection. Communication is the most diverse, incl. space communication. All communication with spacecraft, it takes place in the microwave frequency range. And here is the last example, this is a connection with the first object, the American Voyager 1, which left the solar system, is now moving in interstellar space, and just a few weeks ago there was another communication session with it. They, therefore, during this session, the command was given to turn on the engines, which had been silent for 30 years. And this command was executed, the engines turned on, he changed his orbit there, and, therefore, the control center believes that due to this they will still be able to maintain contact with him for several years. The signal went from us there and then back for almost 2 days at the speed of light. 2 days at the speed of light? Amazing. Those. so they sent a signal to turn on the engines, and found out that they turned on only after 19 hours. Well, that's great, of course. Not 19, in 29 hours. 29. And we will return a little to your life. But tell us about the student period. Those. you went, there are interesting pictures here, we will include them, that for the construction, it means, some kind of tower, you went, it means you had some kind of military training, a military department, it turns out, it was Latvian. Yes. Tell us a little more about this period. Well, we were sent to work on the collective farm, so to speak. Now there are construction teams, in which they sign up voluntarily, but we were sent. The group was taken and let's work on the collective farm for a month. Well, I was there twice on this call, so to speak, and it was interesting when we were sent to this village of Ashperlovo, it's far away, the Leningrad region, on the Pasha River. Such a completely deaf area, some old believers still lived there. And here we are, so we were building this silo tower. Moreover, none of the teachers was with us, we managed ourselves. And it was necessary to go there for building materials, and go there for tools, lay this tower. But the foreman was there, who taught us how to do it. And it is very difficult to build a tower out of bricks, because it is round. And you need to lay each brick at a certain angle, and I learned how to do it there. Those. in addition to learning how to assemble radios, it means that he also learned how to build. Yes. And so we built this silo tower in a month, brought it under the roof, or rather, in the picture there is all this. I think they did it successfully. Well, in general, we had a good team, we provided for ourselves as a group, it means that we singled out girls there who cooked food. But no one worried that they were sent, so to speak, somewhere far away from home? Well, we were worried, of course, what to say. Some, not all went, some didn't go, that's it. Then to practice, for example, after the 4th year we had an internship in Novosibirsk, we were sent to internship in Novosibirsk. There, at the factory, the radio factory, we had an internship. Everyone had their own theme - the development of some kind of lamp, something else. It was also very interesting - the trip itself, and we lived there for a month in Novosibirsk. This was also interesting. And, of course, there were military charges. Then all the guys had to undergo military training, naval training, more precisely, because we have a naval department at the Institute, here. And we had 2 collections. We went through the first training camp in Kronstadt, mostly in the barracks, where we were taught all kinds of military affairs. And the second camp was very interesting - in Baltiysk. We have a team of 6 people from the group got on a patrol ship, and for almost a month we went to sea for exercises, here. We were assigned to BS-5, combat unit 5, this is a communications combat unit, and there we provided communications with ground points, with other ships, with submarines. Was it technical work anyway? Were the tasks predominantly technical? Technical, yes. It was interesting to swim there, of course. There were all sorts of funny stories. Can you imagine, it means that it was necessary to goby there, it means providing food. So, from the galley you take just such a vat of borscht, for example, another saucepan with the second is placed on top, and with this you go down the ladder. Such a steep ladder down to the cockpit, and shakes. Gotta hold on, right? Gotta hold on. We had such a guy, Marik, who had all his robes in borscht. Those. he dumped his portion on himself. Yes. In general, they were interesting. Then Kaliningrad itself, Baltiysk is next to Kaliningrad, it was 1957, 58. Kaliningrad was then half destroyed, and now the impression is not very good. Imagine, here are the streets, and between the streets there are blocks of houses, but instead of these houses there are leveled fields of broken bricks 1.5 meters high. It's clear. Those. post-war period. Yes. It hasn't been restored yet. Well, something remained there, we took pictures there at the grave of this very Euler, in this cathedral, which is also partially destroyed, partially survived. In general, there is something to remember. But in the end, many of the guys from your Letish graduation ended up working at LETI or went to specialties? And how was the distribution then? Those. those who graduated from universities, they mainly went to work further in the technical specialties for which they studied? You know, then there was a distribution system, so. Not a very good system, in my opinion, but they were mainly distributed among enterprises, so to speak, of the profile that you graduated from. We have a few from our group ... I ended up at the Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute by distribution. Phystech so-called. Phystech so-called, yes, here. Several people ended up at Svetlana, a few people ended up at a similar enterprise near Moscow, in Fryazino, where our central institute was microwave and electronics. Here. Several people for other enterprises of a similar profile. Of course, there were problems, because some of the Leningraders who lived and studied here were sent somewhere to Tmutarakan by distribution. But, as a rule, it was necessary to work there for 2 years without fail, then it was already possible to return, here. Then, of course, people changed their specialty, but in general, they mostly worked in their specialty. Several people left us for Saratov, there is also a large electronic industry. In Gorky, which is now Nizhny Novgorod. And, in general, the fate was quite happy for many. Among our fellow students from my group, one is Volodya Kozlov, a laureate of the State Prize. He worked at Elektron in St. Petersburg, but now, however, he is retired. It also means that I am a professor, we also had a few other professors. They became professors. Well, there are professors, so that's basically it. Successful. The heads of the laboratories were from our group, the girl Lusya Akimova was like that. She was the head of the laboratory at Svetlana. So, in general, the work was good. But the fact is that at that time, of course, this electronic industry was developing rapidly, new ones appeared, just in these 60s, new institutions appeared, where people were needed, so there were no problems with distribution. That's the only problem is when you are sent against your will somewhere in Tmutarakan. So how did the guys deal with it? Coped. Those. did you just endure? Will have to go. After 2 years, someone stayed there, because new connections were already being made there, they got married, got married. And someone came back. But last time Alexander Ivanovich said that most of the students spent their time somewhere in the departments. Those. the main lectures were listened to, and then free time, and people went to work at the department. Well, in particular, you also said that you worked at the department. Here, tell me how. Those. it was fashionable, it was interesting. Why was there such a keen interest? Now I personally wonder why the students of that period had such an interest in physics, in science, in doing something at the department. Well, you know why - I can hardly answer, here. But the fact that there was interest, yes, it was. Well, for me, for example, it was traditional, I've been doing amateur radio since my school years, and that's what I left. And so when I was offered to work at the department, to do things related to microwave technology, I, of course, agreed, and under the guidance of my supervisor, Volkov Evgeny Grigorievich, I started working. Then I wrote my diploma on this topic, and then continued to work in this spirit, although with a break, because at the Physics and Technology Institute, where I had a different area of ​​​​work, I worked there in the field of low temperatures, studied superconductivity. Although at that time we also tried to make high-speed switching elements based on superconductors, i.e. speed was also present here. Here's a question about free time. Here is the student's free time. What do students usually do in their spare time? Here you are in particular, you had some kind of car races, it may have been after... Car races are later. Well, what about free time? And in my free time I played preference. I was hoping to hear that you were actively involved in sports. I also played sports, by the way. One did not interfere with the other. Yes. Preference can be considered a form of sport. No, I was engaged in sambo wrestling at the sambo institute, I had the 1st category in wrestling, I participated in competitions. Did you win, win or lose? Yes. Until I got injured, and because of this injury, in general, I had to give it up. Those. sambo, as far as I know, there are different ones. There are places where they fight with shock equipment ... No, no. Sambo is sambo. This is not... Not hand-to-hand combat. Not hand-to-hand combat, no. This is a fight. This is a type of wrestling that was invented in Russia. Sambo stands for "self-defense without weapons." There is a combat section, there is a sports section. We were engaged in sports wrestling, here. Their own rules, their own laws. Well, nevertheless, then come back ... And here there are interesting photos related to scuba diving, diving. Tell me, it was after, so to speak ... It was after. It was I who ended up after being assigned to the Phystech, and that's where we began to go to the lakes of the Leningrad Region, and engage in spearfishing and scuba diving. Spearfishing is without scuba gear at all. Scuba is not allowed, because it's too ... Too easy, right? Easy, yes. But without scuba gear, this is possible. This means that we at the Fiztekh made our own underwater guns. They turned it on a machine there, coiled springs, made these same arrows, in general, and hunted with this. Then they started scuba diving and swimming. We have transparent lakes in the Leningrad region. For example? The Blue Lakes are on the Vyborgskoye Highway, a little east of the Vyborgskoye Highway, about 100, 105 kilometers away. There are clear lakes there. Lake Ladoga is more or less transparent, you can swim there too. And so, in general, the water is muddy and it’s hard to see anything. Well, in the sea, of course, in the Black Sea, for example, you can hunt there. I also hunted in the Black Sea, where I got mullet for lunch. But you told what the radios themselves did, and somehow, it means that you had your own technology, how, it means, to bypass the stubs that jammed the Voice of America, BBC, and so on. Can you tell about it? Well, in general, there was interest, of course, in listening to what the enemy voices were saying there, here. And in order to do this, it was necessary to somehow rebuild from the interference that was then created. Special radio stations were set up, we even have antennas in St. Petersburg still preserved, they are used for a different purpose. Then they were used to create this noise-like signal at the frequency of this station. And in order to tune out from this signal, it was necessary to tune in very accurately - a little bit to the sideband, a little .. In general, there were all sorts of tricks, and the receiver circuit that would allow this, of course, was more complicated. But this does not mean that I came up with this scheme, I just implemented it. It is quite complicated, and in tuning such a receiver, it is complex, this is the so-called superheterodyne receiver with double conversion, here. My receiver turned out so big, and I called it "Meat-2". Why "Meat-2"? Because, as I said in school, meat is a universal concept. We had such a cry at school, meat. In general, at school, of course, we studied interestingly. That is, it turns out that you could get all these components somewhere. Components at the flea market. Where is the money for components? Where did your parents give you money? Parents gave money, yes. Those. supported the initiative. Supported, yes. Did you somehow interpret what you listened to on the radio for yourself? Good bad? Of course they did. The fact is that when I was in the 9th grade, it was 1953, and now Stalin is dying. At this time we are sitting in the radio center, we heard it. And we had a receiver there, of course. So we heard on our radio, not otherwise. Heard this news, turned on the broadcast to the whole school. We think - such news, it is necessary for everyone to hear. After 5 minutes, the director comes running - who allowed it? Now I'm expelling everyone from school. True, he shouted, shouted, calmed down. In general, we had such teachers, the director ... Strict, apparently. Yes. He came to class like that when we broke another table there, in the classroom, dismantled it piece by piece, he came and asked - whose children are you? Who are your parents? We need to delve into your social past. It's clear. And this one, the physical education teacher, when we were building poorly there - who do you work for, he says. You work for Truman. Those. this, in short, the jokes were so political, apparently. These were no longer jokes. These were not jokes. Well, it was such a fun time. Apparently no one passed. Well, we had a very, very good team, there was a male school, the class was very friendly, and until now we maintain close ties with those who are still alive, just like with the group. But then from hobbies, which means amateur radio, let's move on to your other hobby, that's alpine skiing. There are also some interesting photos here. That is why alpine skiing, and how it is in general, is already quite so, let's say neatly, which means that Andrei Dmitrievich celebrated his 80th anniversary last year, well, he still goes skiing, and he thinks that, therefore, this sport , it is available to anyone. Tell us how at that age ... Well, down, not up. Well, down, if you fall, there, too, everything becomes difficult enough. Tell us about alpine skiing, how did you get into alpine skiing? You know, you need to start, again, from childhood, because from the time of the war. I was evacuated with my grandmother, with my mother, and in the evacuation in the East Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan. There are Altai mountains. And there I learned to ski, and our skis were just sticks, or rather, boards, not bent. Not at all? Well, how do you bend them? Well, just sharpen it. To sharpen, yes, it is possible to sharpen, but to bend the toe like that, it was no longer possible. We rode from the mountain, we had such a mountain there, it was called Grebenyukha, so we rode from it. And somehow this is what I have. And then, after graduation, I got into the company of skiers, and they seduced me for it. And they began to travel first to Toksa, then to Kirovsk, which means the Khibiny Mountains. Then to the Caucasus, to the Carpathians, etc. And then trips abroad began - to Austria, to Turkey, to Andorra, I especially liked it there, I like to ride, there are good places. Here. This is a very good sport. Well, age doesn't matter, does it? I have friends, we walked (so, let's get a little distracted) also in the park, I met a man there who was about 75 years old. And he runs, in the summer he runs, so in the winter he skis, and I kept asking him, pestering him - how so? And he says - I have been doing sports all my life, and I have never been professionally involved, but that's how it happened. He says that many of my peers (he was then 75) already, he says, are unconscious, but I, he says, thanks to sports, I think well. How about you, do you feel that age somehow takes, does not take its toll, I don’t know, hard, easy? Well, you have to look at it from the outside, to be honest. Because subjectively, I somehow don’t really feel my age. This is good. Well, it seems so. Of course, on the 5th floor, it’s probably for me already now (without an elevator), you’ll already go out with your tongue hanging out. But… Downhill skiing is fine. Downhill skiing is ok. Fine. But if you ask about the trip. You have a lot of photos here, which means where you are at conferences, and there are a lot of interesting things here - Warsaw, Harvard, New York, Cambridge, Finland (Tampere), Nuremberg. Here everyone is now scaring each other with the Nuremberg tribunals, how are you with the tribunals? Nuremberg is generally an interesting city, there is a huge stadium where Hitler held his gatherings. However, only ruins remained of it. Well, part of the grandstand premises remained, a huge field remained, on which they all gathered there, this is the first. In the same place, not far from this stadium, there is a field like an airfield for airships, here. With masts, to which these airships moored and set sail. This too is preserved as a memorial. And, of course, a lot of churches, castles and other interesting things. But I was there, of course, not for this, but at the European Microwave Week, which was held there, I made 2 reports there, so I listened to what others ... In general, participation in conferences is a very useful thing, especially in international ones, because it , as they say, look at others and show yourself. Such a live communication with real people, it does not even replace Skype, the Internet, after all it is better. And you begin to better understand the problems that world science faces, we will talk, and the ways to solve these problems that are proposed there, you also think - this is suitable, this is not very suitable for us. In general, I think that this is a very useful thing, and it’s very bad that lately this communication has become more and more difficult, primarily because of money, because at our university lately money has not been very good, especially on business trips, and it is not always possible to go, although you are invited, I am a member of the organizing committee of many conferences, but, unfortunately, it is not always possible to go to them. Although in October I also went to Japan for a joint Russian-Japanese seminar, also with a report, and listened to what they were doing there. Mainly on the development of 5th generation mobile communication systems. It is very interesting. Tell me more about this, if you can. What is the main essence there, what is the main idea there? You know that mobile communication is a breakthrough in the field of communication. By the way, even science fiction writers of the 80s and 70s, even such prominent writers as the Strugatskys, they did not foresee the appearance of the mobile phone, if you read their work, yes Ie. it was possible to fantasize anything, but not mobile communications? Mobile - no. That's what you have with you this same mobile phone, you brought it to your ear anywhere and talk, they couldn't think of it, for some reason they couldn't think of it. But it appeared. It appeared in the mid 90s. There was a connection of the 1st generation, when you could only talk, then SMS appeared, you could already send text messages to each other, then it became possible to enter the Internet, watch videos, watch movies. And the further we go, the more information we can exchange using these simple devices. Although, in fact, a mobile phone is one of the most complex devices, if you count by the number of functions per unit of volume. Because it is small, and there are a lot of functions there now. Well, you yourself know, I think everyone knows this, here. But the biggest problem with these mobile phones is that you need to increase ... in order to implement all these functions and expand them, you need to increase the speed of information transfer - both receiving and transmitting information. And for this you need to expand the frequency band in which this connection occurs. This is an extension of the frequency band, it is impossible without an increase in the operating frequency, as it were, the carrier frequency of this phone. Well, maybe we can give a clear example for comparison? Here is the 1st generation, what was the band and carrier frequency, and now. Generation 1, which means that the frequency was chosen there ... The fact is that after all, all frequencies have been distributed for a long time, and we are experiencing a lack of free frequencies. And this is the so-called cellular communication, why it has become so widespread - it has become so widespread due to the ability to repeatedly use the same frequency. Here, the whole space is divided into cells, and the frequencies in neighboring cells are different, but somewhere outside the neighboring cell, the same frequency is used as in the original one. But since they are far apart, they do not interfere with each other. And this principle of frequency reuse is what made it possible to connect the whole world to this cellular communication, billions of people. It is impossible to find one’s own frequency for everyone, but such repeated use ensured the success of cellular communications, here. And then, first here is the voice communication, this is a frequency band of 4 kHz, 4,000 hertz frequency band. Then text messages. The frequency band of 4 kHz is like what, is it a carrier, is it? No, it's relative to the carrier. Those. + 2 and - 2. Everything, I understand. Those. +2 kHz, -2 kHz relative to carrier. Yes, from the center frequency, here. Then other types of communication appeared, and not 4 kHz became necessary anymore, but 400 kHz became necessary, this is the 2nd generation. But these 1st and 2nd generations, they did not affect us, because in Russia they somehow passed unnoticed. We started with the 3rd generation. And in the 3rd generation, it already means that it became possible to use the Internet, connect to the Internet, it became possible to watch videos, some kind of animation, and this is already millions of hertz. This is 6 megahertz, 10 megahertz. Those. relative to the same carrier, +, -. The same with respect to the carrier, back and forth, here. And now the task is, here the 4th generation is already tens of megahertz bandwidth. And now there is a task of the 5th generation of development, which should enter into operation approximately in the year 20, leading operators and developers, such as Samsung, such as a number of Chinese developers, Motorola and others, are planning. By the year 20, 5th generation equipment will already be on sale. And there we are already talking not about megahertz, but about gigahertz, i.e. about billions of hertz. And in order to realize such a wide band, a high central frequency is also needed, otherwise nothing will work there. And the central frequency, the carrier, how did it shift, in which direction? She kept moving up. And this is typical not only for mobile communications, it is typical for all types of communications - both stationary and interplanetary. And over the past 100 years, the maximum frequency of this connection has increased a million times, starting from these times of Marconi and Popov. Well, here we have this picture, we will show it to the audience. Here is the picture. Here. And, therefore, the task is to master these high-frequency ranges. There are a lot of problems here. Well, I'm here to the best of my ability to participate in solving these problems. In particular, at Svetlana, in the well-known electronic industry association, the Svetlana electronic industry association is our oldest enterprise in Russia, which recently celebrated its 125th anniversary. A little ahead of you with your anniversary. You have 80 and they have 125. Yes. Older. Here I am involved in the development of an electronic device, an amplifier, which should amplify at a frequency of 100 gigahertz, this is 10 to 11 powers of hertz. Seriously. There are a lot of problems here. What is it for? For the military? This is for both military and civilian purposes. The fact is that so far there is no specific customer for this product, but we think that if we show a sample, then customers will come running themselves. And what is the point, if it can be said at all? Well, the bottom line is that in fact this is a well-known device, this is the so-called. The klystron, which was invented back in 1939, here. But in order to make it work at such high frequencies, you need to radically change its design. Both design and manufacturing technology, because as the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases. And 100 of these very gigahertz, which I spoke about, correspond to a wavelength of 3 mm. So this is the wavelength. And the main dimensions of the device, they must be commensurate with this wavelength, so all the details must be very small, but at the same time made with a very high degree of accuracy, because tolerances are possible only within a few micrometers. And for this, we have to use new manufacturing technologies, new methods for designing and modeling these devices, machine-made, of course. That's what we're doing. But this year we hope that Svetlana will make a prototype of such a device there. This is very interesting. And it turns out that it should be, so if you take the klystrons of the Soviet period, then if you look at the pictures or in the textbooks it is described that these are quite large such, voluminous such products. Those. now these products should be, I don't know, small boxes like that. Yes. I don't know what is comparable. Well, if there should be a wavelength of 3 mm, it turns out that the order of some centimeters. Yes. Here is the working part, as it were, where everything happens, it is really in size, in length, let's say, a centimeter, and in diameter it is millimeters - 3 mm, 5 mm, here. To do such a thing, and inside there must be a high vacuum, and there must also be an electron gun, there must also be a collector, and you still need to come up with a cooling system, because the device is small, but it is powerful. And since its efficiency is not 100%, the remnants of this power must be diverted from it. And the area is small, so you need to come up with an intensive cooling system. In general, there are a lot of problems. Well, but if you still return now to this, to the general part. Here we have such an interesting picture, here we will show it to the audience, in general, here is the entire microwave range. Those. we choose only a specific part and work in it. Please tell us how the range in which we work, on the microwave, differs from the neighboring ranges, and why are we here? Well, if we talk about the spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations, it is made into several large ranges. If you start with low frequencies, then the first is the radio range. Then comes our microwave range, and then comes the optical range. Historically, it turned out that they were the first to master the optical range. And who mastered it? It was mastered by primitive people, who for the first time lit a fire in their cave in order to illuminate it ... That's right. Physics is a natural science, so it started on its own. Yes, and heat it up, yes. And for many thousands of years the optical range existed in this form - in the form of bonfires, candles and similar things. And at the end of the 19th century, this one appeared, the development of a new range began - the radio range. It started with low frequencies and gradually went higher-higher-higher. And at the end of the 30s, when there was a need for systems for detecting fast-flying aircraft and detecting ships, radar appeared that already worked in the microwave range, or, as we say in Russia, the microwave range, here. And today this microwave range, it is used in a wide variety of fields of science and technology - radar, communications, particle acceleration, all large and small charged particle accelerators, they use an electromagnetic field of an alternating microwave range to accelerate particles. Microwave ovens, everyone knows that, yes. But in addition to microwave ovens, there are also industrial installations for microwave heating and food products and, say, sintering ceramics and many other things. Medicine and biology, because this is microwave radiation, it interacts with living tissues and produces a certain effect, incl. and healing effect, so this is also used. Therefore, this microwave range is being effectively used today. The microwave range, it turned out that it is the last of these 3. It all started with optics, then radio, and this is the last one, because it turned out to be the most difficult to master. And in this optical range there are ranges. And today the task is to master the so-called. terahertz range. This is a range of very short wavelengths, which lies between the classical microwave range and the infrared optical range. In this range, there is today the so-called. terahertz failure. If we plot such a graph as, say, the power given off by devices on frequency, then in this terahertz range, there are the smallest powers. And this gap needs to be filled, and this is what we are doing today. Not only we, but all over the world this is being done. And, it turns out, what will be the size of the devices then? Those. we know that wavelength is inversely related to frequency, i.e. there must be some very small devices. You know, such small devices, of course, they may have the right to life, but it is clear that good results cannot be obtained with them. We need new ideas, new principles - so as to overcome this connection between the wavelength and the dimensions of the device, so that it would be possible to use devices and elements of these devices that are much larger than the wavelength. And such ideas already exist, and they are being implemented. It's clear. But if we go back a little into history. Those. still, the most burning question is who, Marconi or Popov. Who are you betting on? Whose contribution, then, is more significant? You see, it is very difficult to single out one person, because after all, the end of the 19th century, when all this happened, is the period of very intensive development of physics. Then X-rays were discovered, then the atom was discovered, the structure of the atom was discovered. At the same time, a number of other interesting effects were discovered. And if we talk about radio, as I understand it, this is my personal point of view. So, in order to transmit information using radio beams, you need to do something - first, you need to create these radio waves, transmit them, and then receive them. This is what Hertz realized, Heinrich Hertz, who did what - he made a loop, a spark. This means that I connected a high-voltage coil to this loop, a spark jumped, this spark excited electromagnetic waves. He also received these radiations with the help of such a small loop with a small spark gap. So, when electromagnetic waves reached this loop, they excited a current in it, and a small spark jumped. To see this spark, he carried out these experiments of his in total darkness. It is clear that, in general, this is not very good, yes. Although he got an outstanding result - he proved the existence of electromagnetic waves, what Maxwell foresaw and in his equations he showed what it would be, and Hertz confirmed it experimentally only in 1888. But for practical purposes, it was… Not enough. Not enough, yes. Who will be there to look into this very spark in the dark? Here. Moreover, how to transmit information with the help of this spark? Only Morse code can still somehow be, here. But then the so-called. coherer. This is a tube filled with metal filings, which has a lot of resistance between the ends because the filings are coated with hydroxy metal. But if these sawdust is subjected to the action of an electromagnetic wave, then microscopic breakdowns are formed there, and the resistance of these sawdust decreases sharply. This device, which later became known as a coherer, was invented and improved by the English scientist Lodge. And in 1894, in August, at a meeting of the Royal Society of London, he demonstrated signal transmission, where this spark served as the transmitter, as before, and this same coherer served as the receiver. At a distance of 30 meters, i.e. it was already a radio link. And I believe that this very moment was the moment of the discovery of the radio. But Lodge did not patent his discovery, and six months later Popov demonstrated this transmission, although in fact his article, which he published, was not called “discovery of the radio”, it was called “improvement of the coherer” of this one. What was this improvement? The fact is that after an impulse acted on this coherer, it began to conduct, but it does not come back to a state of high resistance on its own, you need to knock on it so that it recovers. And earlier they used to knock with a hammer, and Popov came up with, therefore, a relay that itself knocked from the signal, and the coherer restored its resistance, and could be transmitted in this way. As for Marconi, he worked independently of Popov, he demonstrated his transmitter and receiver later than Popov, but he quickly achieved success, and in particular, already in 1901 he built a transmitter that connected America with Europe, i.e. . transmitted information using Morse code, however, across the Atlantic Ocean. Well, then, in general, this radio communication began to develop rapidly, so it seems to me that these disputes between Popov and Marconi, and someone else, are mostly empty talk. This was done almost simultaneously and independently of each other. And they participated in this, in general, collectively. Someone came up with a coherer, someone improved it, someone replaced the spark transmitter with another transmitter, that's how it all went. This is the business of many people, such an international development. Physics, it turns out, is such an international discipline. Of course, any science is now international. Well, but if you go further, then, according to the instruments. Those. there were further generators, all kinds of tube transmitters are indicated, i.e. it's like a further growth. Further growth, yes, first took place on the basis of vacuum devices, this is the so-called. electronic lamps, electronic devices, where was used the sweat of electrons, which took place in a high vacuum. This flow of electrons is first accelerated by a constant electric field, and the electrons acquire a certain kinetic energy. Then, due to interaction with an alternating electromagnetic field, part of this kinetic energy is converted into field energy. This is the basis of the action of these vacuum devices. Then came semiconductors. And today, semiconductor devices, of course, occupy a large part of the entire range of microwave devices. Moreover, recently here, too, literally in the last few years, a kind of breakthrough has also appeared, new materials have begun to be used. The fact is that the operation of semiconductor devices, in particular the output power of these devices, depends on what material we use as the basis in which all these processes take place. So the first material we used was germanium. Then silicon, and silicon is still used in most semiconductor devices, in particular in computing equipment, in microprocessors, silicon is used in processors. But these germanium and silicon, they do not allow you to get high power and do not allow you to work at very high frequencies due to their properties. And recently we have learned how to make new materials, the so-called. wide-gap, in which the width of the so-called. the band gap is several times larger than that of germanium and silicon, and due to this, more voltage can be applied to them and, accordingly, more power can be obtained. This is silicon carbide, this is gallium nitrite, and this is diamond. These 3 materials have revolutionized semiconductor technology over the past few years. With the help of transistors made on these materials, we were able to obtain such powers that we could previously obtain only with the help of vacuum devices. Well, and vacuum devices are always large, overall devices, it turns out? Well, they certainly have larger dimensions than a semiconductor. Why - because electrons in a vacuum move fast, in fact the limit is the speed of light. But in semiconductors, they move 1000 times slower. And, accordingly, the distance that they cover during one period of oscillation, they are also 1000 times less. And, of course, as the size of semiconductor devices, they are also shrinking. But the power is also reduced, because heat must be removed from them, you cannot remove much heat from such a small device, and there are other problems too, which do not allow you to get high power from them. Nevertheless, these new materials made it possible to increase by an order of magnitude the power obtained in the microwave region from these devices. And besides, there are also lasers. Lasers, as you know, work successfully in the optical range. But when we want to lower the frequency of the laser, that's when we talk about all sorts of vacuum semiconductor devices, we strive to increase their frequency, but here we, on the contrary, want to lower it. And so it all converges to this terahertz dip. It turns out that the lower the frequency that the laser gives, the lower its power. For a number of reasons - in particular, because they are "low" (because they are high for us, but low for a laser, for optics). Here, at such "low" frequencies, the energy of a quantum emitted by a laser becomes comparable to the energy of thermal radiation if this laser is at room temperature, for example. And this prevents the laser from working, and therefore its power is sharply reduced. And so it turns out that in this region of terahertz, both classical devices do not work well, and quantum devices do not work well. And now we need to fill this gap. Which is what they mostly do now. What everyone is doing now both in Russia and abroad. But if we move on to the scope. Here, for example, we have radars, modern radar stations on all kinds of warships, aircraft, and satellites. Tell me, please, I, so to speak, before the start of the conversation, found out that we have such a “Pantsir”, a radar station. So, “Shell”, by the way, these “Shells” fought in Syria and now, probably, they are still there. Missile complexes. Yes, they are called the Pantsir anti-aircraft missile and artillery system. This is a self-propelled unit, in which, therefore, there are several rocket launchers with missiles, and artillery pieces, and it is designed to deal mainly with air targets - and with aircraft, and with cruise missiles, here, and planning bombs. All in all, this is a very effective system. In order to aim this weapon at a target, you need a very accurate radar. And radar, it is the accuracy of determining the target in terms of angle, which means where it is located there, and in range. It depends on the wavelength at which this radar operates, because you can determine both angular coordinates and linear coordinates to the nearest wavelength. Those. accuracy up to cm is obtained practically. Well, not up to cm, but up to tens of cm. Dozens of cm. This is cool, of course. Those. somewhere like this. And the distance at which it can work, to the target, from the installation itself to the target is ...? Well, this is a distance of tens of kilometers. Tens of miles, great. In particular, you are involved in some... To some extent, yes. In development itself. Well, now it is already in service, so there are no longer developments, but deliveries. It's clear. So Andrei Dmitrievich modestly announced his participation a little, but okay. But on ships, satellites, airplanes, i.e. The principles are basically the same everywhere, right? Those. is it either the detection of some objects or targets? Detection of objects and aiming at them some kind of weapon. But besides this, of course, there is a peaceful use of radar. There are stations at the airfields, without which you cannot land a plane, especially in bad weather. Well, this is what we are talking about GPS navigation already, right? No, GPS is different. GPS is not radar, GPS and GLONASS are coordinate systems that also use the microwave range, but this is not radar, here. And I would also say a few words about radar, this is the detection of hidden objects on the human body, for example, when it passes at the airport, train stations, and other crowded places. This is also done by means - radars in the microwave range, this is also a very important area of ​​​​application of the microwave range. Well, we discussed at the beginning that satellites, again, can scan objects on Earth? This means that satellites can really scan objects, and satellites also have high-quality optical equipment, with which they can take pictures and transmit this picture to the earth in real time. But, unfortunately, clouds interfere in the optical range. And, say, we almost always have clouds in St. Petersburg. And now, if we move from the optical range to the microwave range, then the situation there improves dramatically, since microwave radiation, it freely penetrates clouds, even the thickest ones, here. But in order to get a detailed, say, image of the underlying surface under the clouds, again, you need to have a small wavelength, i.e. again we go into this terahertz range. But there are satellites that ... Or are there no devices in this range yet at all? No, there is a range, let's say. Moreover, these radars, they can not only see through the atmosphere, they can also carry out diagnostics of the atmosphere. Here is the presence of clouds, because part of the energy is still reflected from the clouds; the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, how much of it, and this is not only on earth, but also on other planets, in particular, such a Pathfinder worked on Mars - an American descent vehicle, in which, therefore, there was a radar operating at a frequency of 95 GHz, which was used to scan the atmosphere of Mars, and we got a lot of information using this radar. He worked there for more than a year, which means that an amplifying klystron was installed there, which operated at a frequency of 95 GHz and shone through the atmosphere. Well, this picture here can be shown to the viewer about the principle of operation of the klystron. This is the principle of the klystron. So, it was invented, as I said, in the year 37 by the brothers Varian, Sigurd and Russell, here. They came up with this very simple scheme. This means that there is an electron gun that creates a thin electron beam that passes from this gun, from the cathode, and to the collector, which collects electrons. On the path of this electron beam, 2 resonators are placed, in which ... The first resonator, electromagnetic oscillations are excited in it. And these electromagnetic vibrations, they affect the electrons. This means that when the voltage is accelerating, the speed of the electron increases slightly. And when the voltage for a given electron is braking, then its speed slows down. Therefore, at the exit from the resonator, if at the entrance to this first resonator all electrons have approximately the same speed, then at the exit they are already, as they say, modulated in speed. Those. some go faster and some go slower. And then the same thing begins that begins on the highway, when one car goes slower, and the tail gathers behind. And here the same thing happens, that those electrons that go more slowly, they are overtaken by those that came out later, but which go at a faster speed. The only difference is that electrons can pass through each other… Well, not through each other, there is enough space for them to pass without collisions, unlike cars, here. But as a result, fast electrons catch up with slow ones, and a sequence of bunches is obtained from a homogeneous flow. One bunch, a second such bunch goes behind, and this sequence of bunches passes through the second resonator, and excites oscillations in it. Moreover, it excites in such a way that the voltage that appears on this resonator turns out to be decelerating for the bunch, and this bunch slows down there, and transfers part of its energy to this resonator field. And as a result, we can derive amplified oscillations from this resonator. This is the principle of operation of the amplifying klystron, which was invented by these same Varian brothers. Today, of course, these klystrons have a much more complex design, here, but, nevertheless, the principle is the same. And where next? Those. why is it so important? Why was it so important to invent these klystrons? Because that's what mattered. The fact is that before, when there were no klystrons, it was necessary to use ordinary vacuum tubes to generate oscillations, which have ... A triode, for example, which has a cathode, a grid and an anode. But these vacuum tubes cannot operate at high frequencies for a variety of reasons, I do not know if it is worth explaining. The fact is that if we quickly change the voltage on the control grid, the electrons that fly at low speeds from the grid to the anode, while they fly, the voltage can change, even change sign. And as a result, we will not get the desired effect - due to the fact that the time of flight in this interval turns out to be comparable with the oscillation period. And therefore, we cannot obtain high powers, high frequencies with the help of conventional devices. But the invention of the klystron and the somewhat later invention of the magnetron, it radically changed the situation, because these devices use the so-called. the dynamic way to control the electron flow is due to high-speed modulation, or due to the formation of spokes, as in a magnetron. And this radically changed the situation and made it possible to obtain high powers in the microwave range. And in particular, the invention of the magnetron, if we already went for it, in 40 by the English scientists Randell and Booth, it made it possible to create radar stations that could be installed on aircraft. Previously, these radar stations were structures, huge masts, huge antennas, because the power was small, and we somehow needed all that. And here is the magnetron, it is a small device itself, simple, but it generates a lot of power. So, it was possible to make a small antenna for this, and it became possible to install these radar stations on airplanes. This radically changed the situation in the so-called. the battle for England, when the Germans tried to suppress, well, destroy, say, English industry, destroy its fleet and aircraft. With the help of these radars installed on aircraft, the British were able at night, in conditions of poor visibility, to shoot down German bombers, and the losses for the Germans became so large and, most importantly, not so much bombers as pilots, because the aircraft can be made new, but pilot ... It is more difficult to train a pilot. It is not simple. The Germans had to abandon the conquest of England, and switch to us. Sadly. Technological progress immediately fell out against us. But having gone a little away from vacuum devices and from devices in general, we touched a little on semiconductor ones. Well, maybe we'll leave it for next time, but, nevertheless, I would like to ask a question about something a little different. Those. when I was studying, while still in 2005-2006, you were then engaged in calculations of electromagnetic fields in various structures, in particular, you worked with LG, so if you can tell there, what is possible and what is impossible. And there are theoretical calculations, there are software products that have been implemented under your leadership. So I think that this would probably be the most interesting thing that could be told, because this is exactly what is happening right now. About antennas in mobile phones, ie. they are very small, very complex in shape, how they are made, how they are calculated, that's very interesting. Well, I'll try to be shorter, because it's already time, probably ... Well, there's a little more. There is, yes? So, this is really the problem of modeling a high-frequency magnetic field, it is very acute, because experimental methods for studying it are either absent or very complex, and, as they would say now, traumatic. Those. when you bring in some kind of probe in order to measure this field, you thereby violate it, that is, the structure. Therefore, mathematical modeling plays a very important role here. And there are a number of software products, today it is already three-dimensional modeling, i.e. we can simulate the electromagnetic field in different environments, in very complex structures, consisting of many parts, here. And in particular, such a task was set before the St. Petersburg branch of LG Electronics of the company, which has been working with us for several years, well, I took part in its solution. The task was to calculate the electromagnetic field of cell phone antennas. Another problem is that, as I said about cell phones, this is a very complicated thing. There is stuffed, as they say, a lot of details. And it turns out that there is no place for the antenna, you understand, although without an antenna it turns into a toy, here. But there is less and less space for the antenna, and now, in connection with the transition to the 5th generation, we are moving to higher frequencies, as I said, the millimeter range, and more complex antennas are required. No longer 1 antenna, but an antenna array consisting of many antennas, phased, the radiation of which must be phased in a certain way in order to create the desired radiation pattern. And this creates great difficulties in the calculation, because you need to take into account, firstly, those parts that are in the phone itself, and there are hundreds of different ones - both dielectric and metal, starting with the battery and ending there with sockets for, say, headphones or something else. Many things. And the filling itself is this multilayer, printed circuit board that is there, the processor, well, the filling is very large. Plus, you need to take into account the influence of the head, you need to take into account the influence of the hand in which you are, and of the entire human body, near which this phone works. So the problem is very complex. And so far we have created this 3D simulation program, which is called RFS - radio frequency simulator in English, and we are gradually making it, which means improvements, now we already have the 10th release coming out. Now the task has been set to add something there, to subtract something, and in this area of ​​modeling, I believe, we are successfully working together with the LG team, in which 2 of my former graduate students who defended their dissertations are now working, successfully work there. Now they are taking another girl, who is now studying with me in the magistracy, i.e. I have very good contacts with them. And the problems are complex. Now here is a new problem, it is of such a specific nature, it is difficult to talk about it in a popular way, but at least it needs to be solved in the near future. Here is the most interesting question, many people talk about the dangers of the electromagnetic field, and here is the effect of the side lobes of radiation on the human head. Well, that was 10 years ago, but have there been any significant changes in this problem over these 10 years? You know, it means that this question, of course, is more about medicine, but what can I answer: it means that there are norms for permissible exposure, this is the so-called. the maximum allowable absorbed power in, say, 1 gram of the human body, or 10 grams, there are different ways. These are the norms, they are not taken from the ceiling. They are taken on the basis of statistics, which suggests that if these norms are not exceeded, then nothing bad happens to a person, that's it. And all modern phones are tested for this so-called. SAR, specific absorption rate, and of course, that all phones that you buy, unless it's from the black market somewhere, they meet these standards. Here is our program, RFS, it allows you to calculate this very value, although then the experiment is still set up and checked, but this is a complex experiment. And having this program, we can immediately see the maximum power that is absorbed in the human head. To do this, a head model is created, as they say "phantom", in which there are bones, and skin, and muscles, and brains, everything is present there, with its own dielectric parameters, and we can evaluate this power. If it suddenly turns out that it exceeds the permissible values, then the design needs to be changed, some measures need to be taken. The point is that the power that, say, the phone develops in transmission mode, it depends on many factors. The farther you are from the base station, the more power you need to transmit the signal. Well, now the base stations are standing quite often, and therefore the phone develops its maximum power in exceptional cases, this also makes it easier. Therefore, it seems to me that this anxiety about the fact that you will lose your health there because you are talking on the phone is hardly justified. Hardly, obviously. Although I am not a doctor and, of course, I cannot say this 100%. But it is also interesting to ask questions about the principle of operation of this program itself. Those. Here's a little bit to tell literally, somehow on the fingers, if possible. Firstly, this is probably more related to the category of theoretical physics and programming, since we are solving the Maxwell equation for the electromagnetic field here. Well, here's your word. So, let's say this, it belongs to the field of computational physics, there is now such a branch of physics - computational physics, and computational electrodynamics. The fact is that the electromagnetic field is what it is: just imagine that at each point in space you have 6 numbers. These are 3 components of the electric field strength and 3 components of the magnetic field strength. It's hard to imagine, here at each point there are 6 numbers, and there are an infinite number of these points. Therefore, we cannot directly calculate such a field on any computer, since a computer cannot deal with an infinite number of unknowns, and these numbers are unknown, at each point there are 6 unknown numbers, and there are infinitely many points. Therefore, it is necessary to use approximate methods. And one of these possible methods, very versatile and very effective, is to break the volume in which we consider the electromagnetic field into small elements. And in each element represent this field as a sum of simple functions with unknown coefficients. So, if we take and break, let's say, some volume, take a mobile phone and take some sphere around it, and in this volume we take 100,000, let's say, of these elements. In each element, we represent the field as a sum of known functions, but with unknown coefficients, and there are several of these known functions. And as a result, instead of a problem with an infinite number of unknowns, we get a problem with a finite number of unknowns, however, with a very large number. But this is already a problem to be solved, it depends on the power of the computer. Here is this so-called. finite element method, here every small volume is a finite element. Here it also is used in our program. There are several problems here. First, it is necessary to break this into finite elements, and not manually, of course, to do this, but automatically, taking into account the properties of materials. Because if your material has a high dielectric constant, the wavelength is shorter in it and, accordingly, you need more elements, the mesh should be thicker. And in the air it should be less frequent. This is the first thing, this is the so-called grid generator, this is an independent purely geometric problem, but which needs to be solved. Then you need to compose a system of equations for these unknown functions and, therefore, calculate the coefficients of these equations. And then you need to solve this system of equations. And then you need to somehow graphically depict the results of the solution, the so-called post-processing. This is all being done, and all sorts of tricks for this are used in order to somehow reduce the need for computing power. Today, our program allows you to break this area into several million, there are up to 10 million finite elements. And in each finite element, use up to 20 functions, i.e. it already counts for hundreds of elements. And the result is a system of 100 million unknowns, which means 100 million equations with 100 million unknowns, and this system is being solved. It is solved, well, it depends, of course, on which computer you do it, but on modern powerful workstations, it is solved in, say, an hour. Those. you run all the parameters and sit for an hour waiting, roughly speaking. Well, you create a geometric model. By the way, this geometric model is also not easy to create, because, as I said, there are hundreds of details in the phone, not to mention the head, arm and other parts of the body. Therefore, this geometric model is imported from the developers of the phone, they have such a model in computer-aided design systems, AutoCAD, for example. Here we are importing it. But the properties of the objects that we need to calculate the electromagnetic field are not indicated there. This means that we must assign some properties to each part, and then create a grid and carry out the remaining stages of the solution. And here is the final result, in what way - both graphically and in the form of graphs, right? So, the end result, for example, is important to know, here we have a generator that works for an antenna. But the fact is that not all of the energy of the generator is radiated by this antenna, and part is reflected back. And here it is important to know which part is reflected. The smaller it is, the better. Therefore, let's say a graph of the reflection coefficient as a function of frequency is displayed. You can derive, for example, the distribution of some component, the desired component of the electric field, along a curve or on a plane that you yourself specify, here, in volume. You can derive, as I said, this specific absorbed power. You can derive, say, such parameters as the efficiency of the antenna, the radiation pattern of the antenna, in which direction it shines, and in which direction it does not shine, and a lot of things that this program allows you to calculate after it solves this problem. Moreover, it solves this problem in the frequency range, as a rule. We set the frequency range, the step with which this frequency changes, and solve this problem, like this. It's clear. I think, on this note, we will interrupt our conversation today. Perhaps we will be able to invite Andrei Dmitrievich to visit us again with some other topic, or expand on this one, because we have not touched on a lot of issues. Once again, for the audience, I would like to say how to say, well, here’s a summary in what plan - we don’t have so many people left who, from, say, the post-war period, began to study, develop our science, technology, and, as it were, it’s not good to say that , but they survived to our times. Because from the moment, like, let's say, even I finished studying, so many professors have passed away. And now we can turn to them in order to find out how they lived, how they built science, how they built their lives. And we know that in the Soviet period, science flourished in our country, so to speak. And I would like, having talked with them, in some way, maybe, to throw information into this media space that maybe our science, so to speak, is not completely dead, but can flourish. And in it, in particular, people like Andrei Dmitrievich are still working, working, despite the fact that Andrei Dmitrievich just celebrated his 80th birthday, we have already said. Therefore, we all need to be energized by the presence of such people, and communicate and meet with them more and more often. It's a pleasure to talk with you, thank you. And thank you very much for listening to me, and I hope that our potential viewers will be interested in the issues that we discussed here. Goodbye everyone.